Methods and apparatus for intravasculary-induced neuromodulation or denervation

ABSTRACT

Methods and apparatus are provided for intravascularly-induced neuromodulation or denervation. Neuromodulation may be achieved via direct and/or via indirect application of energy or neuromodulatory agents to target neural matter, or to vascular structures that support the target neural matter. In some embodiments, parameters of the target neural matter, of non-target tissue, or of the apparatus may be monitored via one or more sensors for controlling the neuromodulation or denervation. Such monitoring data optionally may be utilized for feedback control of the neuromodulation or denervation.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/363,867, filed on Feb. 27, 2006, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/813,589, filed on Dec. 29, 2005 (originally filed as U.S. application Ser. No. 11/324,188), both of which are incorporated by reference herein. Further, the present application is a continuation-in-part of each of the following co-pending U.S. patent applications:

(a) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed on May 13, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/616,254, filed on Oct. 5, 2004; and 60/624,793, filed on Nov. 2, 2004, and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/408,665, filed on Apr. 8, 2003 (published as United States Patent Publication 2003/0216792 on Nov. 20, 2003), which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/442,970, filed on Jan. 29, 2003; 60/415,575, filed on Oct. 3, 2002; and 60/370,190, filed on Apr. 8, 2002.

(b) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/189,563 filed Jul. 25, 2005, which (a) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed May 13, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/616,254, filed Oct. 5, 2004, and 60/624,793, filed Nov. 2, 2004; and (b) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/900,199, filed Jul. 28, 2004 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,978,174), which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/408,665, filed Apr. 8, 2003, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/370,190 filed Apr. 8, 2002; 60/415,575, filed Oct. 3, 2002; and 60/442,970, filed Jan. 29, 2003.

(c) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/403,329, filed Apr. 13, 2006, which (a) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed May 13, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/616,254, filed Oct. 5, 2004, and 60/624,793, filed Nov. 2, 2004; and (b) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/408,665, filed Apr. 8, 2003, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/370,190 filed Apr. 8, 2002; 60/415,575, filed Oct. 3, 2002; and 60/442,970, filed Jan. 29, 2003; and (c) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/189,563, filed Jul. 25, 2005; and (d) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/266,933, filed Nov. 4, 2005; and (e) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/363,867, filed Feb. 27, 2006.

(d) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/504,117, filed Aug. 14, 2006, which (a) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/408,665, filed Apr. 8, 2003, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/370,190 filed Apr. 8, 2002; 60/415,575, filed Oct. 3, 2002; and 60/442,970, filed Jan. 29, 2003; and (b) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/189,563 filed Jul. 25, 2005, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed May 13, 2005, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 60/616,254, filed Oct. 5, 2004, and 60/624,793, filed Nov. 2, 2004

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to methods and apparatus for neuromodulation. Several embodiments, more particularly, relate to intravascular methods and apparatus for denervating a desired innervated blood vessel in a patient, or a target nerve or nervous tissue (e.g., brain tissue) in proximity to the blood vessel in order to treat any neurological disorder or other medical condition.

BACKGROUND

Applicants have described methods and apparatus for treating a variety of renal and cardio-renal diseases, such as congestive heart failure (“CHF”), renal disease, renal failure, hypertension, heart arrhythmia and myocardial infarction, by modulating or denervating neural fibers that contribute to renal function. This reduces renal sympathetic nervous activity, which increases removal of water and sodium from the body, and returns renin secretion to more normal levels. Normalized renin secretion may normalize renal blood flow and decrease peripheral vascular resistance. See, for example, Applicants' co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No.: (a) 10/408,665, filed Apr. 8, 2003; (b) Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed on May 13, 2005; (c) Ser. No. 11/189,563, filed on Jul. 25, 2005; (d) Ser. No. 11/363,867, filed on Feb. 27, 2006; (e) Ser. No. 11/504,117, filed on Aug. 14, 2006; as well as U.S. Pat. No. 6,978,174. All of these applications and the patent are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

Many blood vessels throughout the body are innervated. Furthermore, many nerves travel in proximity to blood vessels of the body. In some patients, it may be desirable to modulate such nerves or nervous tissue (e.g., brain tissue) within or in proximity to a blood vessel to treat a neurological disorder or other medical condition. Such modulation may desirably result in alteration of the nerve function or denervation of tissue that is innervated by the nerves. However, it may be invasive or impractical to access such nerves/nervous tissue, or it may be difficult to locally modulate the nerves or denervate target tissue without excessively damaging surrounding tissues. Therefore, it would be desirable to provide methods and apparatus for intravascularly-induced denervation.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Several embodiments will be apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters refer to like parts throughout, and in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic isometric detail view showing a common location of neural fibers proximate an artery.

FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic isometric and end views, respectively, illustrating orienting of an electric field for selectively affecting nerves positioned proximate an artery.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are schematic side views, partially in section, illustrating examples of intravascular methods and apparatus for neuromodulation or denervation.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are schematic side views, partially in section, illustrating an alternative embodiment of the intravascular methods and apparatus of FIGS. 3 comprising wall-contacting electrodes.

FIGS. 5A and 5B are schematic side views, partially in section, illustrating an additional alternative embodiment of the intravascular methods and apparatus of FIGS. 3 comprising alternative wall-contacting electrodes.

FIGS. 6A and 6B are schematic side views, partially in section, illustrating other alternative embodiments of the intravascular methods and apparatus of FIGS. 3 comprising multiple wall-contacting electrodes.

FIG. 7 is a schematic side view, partially in section, illustrating an example of an intra-to-extravascular method and apparatus for neuromodulation or denervation.

FIG. 8 is a schematic side view, partially in section, of an alternative embodiment of the method and apparatus of FIG. 7 configured for neuromodulation or denervation via injection of a neuromodulatory substance and/or of a thermal fluid.

FIGS. 9A and 9B are schematic side views, partially in section, illustrating a method and apparatus for neuromodulation or denervation via high-intensity focused ultrasound.

FIG. 10 is a schematic side view, partially in section, illustrating an alternative embodiment of the apparatus and method of FIGS. 9.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A. Overview

Several embodiments of the methods and apparatus described below provide intravascularly-induced neuromodulation or denervation of an innervated blood vessel in a patient, target neural fibers, or other neural tissue (e.g., brain tissue) in proximity to a blood vessel. The disclosed methods and apparatus can be used to treat any neurological disorder or other medical condition. Nerves in proximity to a blood vessel may innervate or otherwise affect an organ or tissue. Intravascularly-induced neuromodulation or denervation may be utilized to treat a host of neurological disorders or other medical conditions, including, but not limited to, heart failure, hypertension, renal disease, renal failure, contrast nephropathy, myocardial infarction, pain, heart arrhythmia, peripheral arterial occlusive disease (e.g., via pain mitigation), headache or migraine, spasticity, rigor, and cerebral palsy. Additional disorders and medical conditions for which the apparatus and methods may be utilized for treatment include, for example, conditions and disorders listed in Table 1 of United States Patent Application Publication Number US2006/0111754 to Rezai et al., which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The methods and apparatus described herein may, for example, be used to modulate efferent nerves, afferent nerves, sympathetic nerves, parasympathetic nerves, sensory nerves, and/or motor nerves, as well as combinations thereof. In addition, the methods and apparatus described herein may, for example, be used to modulate brain tissue.

The intravascularly-induced neuromodulation or denervation may be achieved via apparatus percutaneously positioned within vasculature in proximity to target neural matter (e.g., neural fibers or neural tissue) for application of energy to the target neural matter. The neuromodulation or denervation may be induced, for example, via electrical energy application, via thermal energy application (either heating or cooling), via mechanical energy application, via chemical energy application, via radiation energy application, etc. Such neuromodulation may be achieved, for example, via (a) a thermal or non-thermal electric field, (b) a continuous or pulsed electric field, (c) a stimulation electric field, (d) localized drug delivery, (e) high intensity focused ultrasound, (f) thermal techniques, (g) athermal techniques, and/or (h) combinations thereof. Such neuromodulation may, for example, effectuate irreversible electroporation or electrofusion, necrosis and/or inducement of apoptosis, alteration of gene expression, action potential blockade or attenuation, changes in cytokine up-regulation, and other conditions in target neural matter. All or a part of the apparatus optionally may be passed through a wall of the vasculature to an extravascular location in order to facilitate the neuromodulation or denervation.

Neuromodulation or denervation may be achieved via either direct alteration of the target neural structures or at least in part via alteration of the vascular structures that support the target neural matter, such as arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins or venules. In some embodiments, the neuromodulation or denervation may be achieved via direct application of energy to the target neural matter, or the vascular structures supporting the target neural matter. In other embodiments, the neuromodulation or denervation may be achieved via indirect generation and/or application of the energy, such as through application of an electric field or of high-intensity focused ultrasound that causes resistive heating in the target neural matter or the supporting vascular structures. Furthermore, the neuromodulation/denervation may at least in part be induced via irreversible electroporation of the target neural matter, or of the supporting structures.

In some embodiments, methods and apparatus for real-time monitoring of an extent or degree of neuromodulation or denervation in the target neural matter, or support structures, and/or of undesirable damage in the non-target tissue, may be provided. Likewise, real-time monitoring of the energy delivery apparatus may be provided. Power, total energy delivered, and/or temperature additionally or alternatively may be monitored.

When utilizing an electric field to achieve desired neuromodulation or denervation, the electric field parameters may be altered and combined in any combination, as desired. Such parameters can include, but are not limited to, voltage, field strength, pulse width, pulse duration, the shape of the pulse, the number of pulses and/or the interval between pulses (e.g., duty cycle), power, etc. For example, suitable field strengths can be up to about 10,000 V/cm, and may be either continuous or pulsed. Suitable shapes of the electrical waveform include, for example, AC waveforms, sinusoidal waves, cosine waves, combinations of sine and cosine waves, DC waveforms, DC-shifted AC waveforms, RF waveforms, square waves, trapezoidal waves, exponentially-decaying waves, or combinations thereof.

When utilizing a pulsed electric field, suitable pulse widths can be of any desired interval, for example, up to about 1 second. The field includes at least one pulse, and in many applications the field includes a plurality of pulses or is continuously applied, e.g., for up to several minutes. Suitable pulse intervals include, for example, intervals less than about 10 seconds. These parameters are provided as suitable examples and in no way should be considered limiting.

When utilizing thermal mechanisms to achieve the neuromodulation or denervation, protective elements optionally may be provided to protect the non-target tissue, such as the smooth muscle cells, from thermal damage during the thermally-induced neuromodulation or denervation. For example, when heating the nerves or support structures, protective cooling elements, such as convective cooling elements, may be provided to protect the non-target tissue. Likewise, when cooling the nerves or support structures, protective heating elements, such as convective heating elements, may be utilized to protect the non-target tissue. Thermal energy may be applied either directly or indirectly for a brief or sustained period of time in order to achieve desired neuromodulation or denervation. Feedback, such as sensed temperature along target or non-target tissue or along the device, optionally may be used to control and/or monitor delivery of the thermal energy.

The non-target tissue optionally may be protected during the neuromodulation or denervation by utilizing blood flow as a conductive and/or convective thermal sink that absorbs excess thermal energy (hot or cold). For example, when blood flow is not blocked, the circulating blood may provide a relatively constant temperature medium for removing the excess thermal energy from the non-target tissue during the procedure. The non-target tissue additionally or alternatively may be protected by focusing the thermal energy or other energy on the target neural matter, or the support structures, such that an intensity of the energy is insufficient to induce thermal damage in the non-target tissue distant from the target neural matter.

Additional and alternative methods and apparatus may be utilized to achieve neuromodulation or denervation, as described hereinafter. To better understand the embodiments of methods and devices for intravascularly-induced neuromodulation or denervation described below, it is instructive to examine the neurovascular anatomy in humans.

B. Neurovascular Anatomy Summary

FIG. 1 illustrates a common anatomical arrangement of neural structures relative to vascular structures, typically arteries. Neural fibers N generally may extend longitudinally along the lengthwise dimension L of an artery A, often within the adventitia of the artery. The artery A has smooth muscle cells SMC that surround the arterial circumference and generally spiral around the angular dimension θ of the artery. The smooth muscle cells of the artery accordingly have a lengthwise or longer dimension generally extending transverse (i.e., non-parallel) to the lengthwise dimension of the blood vessel. The misalignment of the lengthwise dimensions of the neural fibers and the smooth muscle cells is defined as “cellular misalignment.”

Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, the cellular misalignment of the nerves N and the smooth muscle cells SMC may be exploited to selectively affect the nerve cells with reduced effect on the smooth muscle cells. More specifically, energy application may be directed along the lengthwise dimension L of the artery A, rather than along the angular dimension θ of the artery.

For example, when utilizing electrical energy application to achieve the desired neuromodulation or denervation, it is known that larger cells require lower electric field strength to exceed the cell membrane irreversibility threshold voltage or energy for irreversible electroporation than do smaller cells. Thus, embodiments of electrodes of the present invention may be configured to align at least a portion of an electric field generated by the electrodes with or near the longer dimensions of the cells to be affected. In specific embodiments, the device has electrodes configured to create an electrical field aligned with or near the lengthwise dimension L of the artery A to affect nerves N. By aligning an electric field so that the field preferentially aligns with the lengthwise aspect of the nerve cells rather than the diametric or radial aspect of the cells, lower field strengths may be used to affect the target neural cells, e.g., to necrose or fuse the target cells, to induce apoptosis, to alter gene expression, to attenuate or block action potentials, to change cytokine up-regulation and/or to induce other suitable processes in the cells. This is expected to reduce the total energy or power delivered by the system and to mitigate effects on the non-target cells in the electric field.

Similarly, the lengthwise or longer dimensions of tissues overlying or underlying the target nerve are orthogonal or otherwise off-axis (e.g., transverse) with respect to the longer dimensions of the nerve cells. Thus, in addition to aligning an electric field with the lengthwise or longer dimensions of the target cells, the electric field may propagate along the lateral or shorter dimensions of the non-target cells (i.e., such that the electric field propagates at least partially out of alignment with non-target smooth muscle cells SMC). Therefore, as seen in FIGS. 2A and 2B, applying an electric field with propagation lines Li generally aligned with the longitudinal dimension L of the artery A may preferentially cause electroporation (e.g., irreversible electroporation), electrofusion or other neuromodulation in cells of the target nerves N without unduly affecting the non-target arterial smooth muscle cells SMC. The electric field may propagate in a single plane along the longitudinal axis of the artery, or may propagate in the longitudinal direction along any angular segment θ through a range of 0°-360°.

An electric neuromodulation system placed within, through and/or in proximity to the wall of the artery may propagate an electric field having a longitudinal portion that is aligned to run with the longitudinal dimension of the artery in the region of the nerves N and the smooth muscle cells SMC of the vessel wall so that the wall of the artery remains at least substantially intact while the outer nerve cells are destroyed, fused or otherwise affected. Monitoring elements optionally may be utilized to assess an extent of, e.g., electroporation or temperature change, induced in nerves and/or in smooth muscle cells, as well as to adjust electric field parameters to achieve a desired effect.

C. Embodiments of Apparatus and Methods for Neuromodulation or Denervation

FIGS. 3-10 illustrate examples of intravascular systems and methods for neuromodulation or denervation. Applicants have previously described intravascular and intra-to-extravascular electric field systems for neuromodulation or denervation, for example, in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/129,765, filed May 13, 2005; and Ser. No. 11/363,867, filed on Feb. 27, 2006, both of which have been incorporated herein by reference. Furthermore, applicants have previously described thermal systems for neuromodulation or denervation, for example, in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/504,117, filed on Aug. 14, 2006, entitled Methods and Apparatus for Thermally-Induced Renal Neuromodulation (Attorney Docket No. 57856.8015US1).

Referring now to FIGS. 3A and 3B, an apparatus 300 for neuromodulation or denervation comprises a catheter 302 having an optional positioning element 304 (e.g., a balloon, an expandable wire basket, other mechanical expanders, etc.), shaft electrodes 306 a and 306 b positioned along the shaft of the catheter, and optional radiopaque markers 308 positioned along the shaft of the catheter in the region of the positioning element 304. The electrodes 306 a-b, for example, can be arranged such that the electrode 306 a is near a proximal end of the positioning element 304 and the electrode 306 b is near the distal end of the positioning element 304. The electrodes 306 are electrically coupled to a field generator 50, which optionally may be positioned external to the patient, for delivery of an electric field to the target neural matter. In an alternative embodiment, one or more of the electrodes may comprise Peltier electrodes for heating or cooling the target neural matter to modulate the fibers or tissue.

The field generator 50, as well as any of the electrode embodiments described herein, may be utilized with any embodiment of the present invention for delivery of an electric field with desired field parameters. It should be understood that electrodes of embodiments described hereinafter may be electrically connected to the generator even though the generator is not explicitly shown or described with each embodiment. Furthermore, the field generator optionally may be positioned internal to the patient.

The positioning element 304 optionally may center or otherwise position the electrodes 306 a and 306 b within a vessel. Additionally, as in FIG. 3A, the positioning element may comprise an impedance-altering element that alters the impedance between the electrodes 306 a and 306 b during the therapy, for example, to better direct the electric field across the vessel wall. This may reduce an energy required to achieve desired neuromodulation or denervation and may reduce a risk of injury to non-target tissue. Applicants have previously described use of an impedance-altering element, for example, in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/266,993, filed Nov. 4, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. When the positioning element 304 comprises an inflatable balloon, as in FIG. 3A, the balloon may serve as both a centering element for the electrodes 306 and as an impedance-altering electrical insulator for directing an electric field delivered across the electrodes, e.g., for directing the electric field into or across the vessel wall for modulation of target neural matter. Electrical insulation provided by the positioning element 304 may reduce the magnitude of applied energy or other parameters of the electric field necessary to achieve desired modulation of the target fibers, up to and including full denervation.

Furthermore, the positioning element 304 optionally may be utilized as a thermal element. For example, it may be inflated with a chilled fluid that serves as a heat sink for removing heat from tissue that contacts the element. Conversely, the positioning element 304 may be inflated with a warmed fluid that heats tissue in contact with the element. The thermal fluid within the element optionally may be circulated and/or exchanged within the positioning element 304 to facilitate more efficient conductive and/or convective heat transfer. Thermal fluids also may be used to achieve thermal neuromodulation via thermal cooling or heating mechanisms, as described in greater detail herein below. The positioning element 304, or any other portion of apparatus 300, additionally or alternatively may comprise one or more sensors for monitoring the temperature or other parameters of the target tissue, the non-target tissue, the electrodes, the positioning element, and/or any other portion of the apparatus 300 or of the patient's anatomy. The sensors, for example, can be a thermocouple 310 configured to contact the vessel wall (shown in FIG. 3A).

The positioning element optionally may comprise an eccentric positioning element. The eccentric positioning element may be configured, for example, to position the electrode(s) in contact with the vessel wall. For example, the electrode(s) may be coupled to the shaft of the catheter, and the eccentric positioning element may be expanded to bring the shaft of the catheter and the electrode(s) into contact with the vessel wall. The eccentric positioning element may comprise an eccentric balloon, an eccentric expandable basket, or any other eccentric positioning element.

The electrodes 306 can be individual electrodes (i.e., independent contacts), a segmented electrode with commonly connected contacts, or a single continuous electrode. Furthermore, the electrodes 306 may be configured to provide a bipolar signal, or the electrodes 306 may be used together or individually in conjunction with a separate patient ground pad for monopolar use. As an alternative or in addition to placement of the electrodes 306 along the central shaft of the catheter 302, as in FIGS. 3, the electrodes 306 may be attached to the positioning element 304 such that they contact the wall of the renal artery RA. In such a variation, the electrodes may, for example, be affixed to the inside surface, outside surface or at least partially embedded within the wall of the positioning element. FIG. 4 illustrate alternative wall-contacting electrodes.

In use, the catheter 302 may be delivered to the artery A as shown, or it may be delivered to a vein or to any other vessel in proximity to target neural matter, in a low profile delivery configuration, for example, through a guide catheter. Alternatively, catheters may be positioned in multiple vessels for neuromodulation, e.g., within both an artery and a vein. Multi-vessel techniques for electric field neuromodulation have been described previously, for example, in Applicant's co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/451,728, filed Jul. 12, 2006, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Once positioned within the vasculature as desired, the optional positioning element 304 may be expanded into contact with an interior wall of the vessel. An electric field then may be generated by the field generator 50, transferred through the catheter 302 to the electrodes 306, and delivered via the electrodes 306 across the wall of the artery. The electric field modulates the activity along neural fibers within the wall of the artery or in proximity to the artery. The electrical field, for example, can at least partially denervate tissue or organ(s) innervated by the neural fibers. This may be achieved, for example, via ablation, non-ablative injury, or other changes to the target neural matter or supporting structures. The electric field additionally or alternatively may induce electroporation, e.g., irreversible electroporation, in the neural fibers, which also may contribute to the desired neuromodulation or denervation.

In the embodiment of FIG. 3A, the positioning element 304 illustratively comprises an inflatable balloon, which may preferentially direct the electric field as discussed. In the embodiment of FIG. 3B, the positioning element comprises an expandable wire basket that substantially centers the electrodes 306 within the vessel without blocking blood flow through the vessel. During delivery of the electric field (or of other energy), the blood may act as a thermal sink (either hot or cold) for conductive and/or convective heat transfer for removing excess thermal energy from the non-target tissue (such as the interior wall of the vessel), thereby protecting the non-target tissue. This effect may be enhanced when blood flow is not blocked during energy delivery, as in the embodiment of FIG. 3B.

Use of the patient's blood as a thermal sink is expected to facilitate delivery of longer or higher energy treatments with reduced risk of damage to the non-target tissue, which may enhance the efficacy of the treatment at the target neural matter. Although the embodiment of FIG. 3B illustratively comprises a positioning element that substantially centers the electrodes without significantly blocking flow, it should be understood that the positioning element may be eliminated and/or that the electrodes may be attached to the positioning element such that they are not centered in the vessel upon expansion of the positioning element. In such embodiments, the patient's blood may still remove excess heating or cooling thermal energy to protect non-target tissues.

In addition or as an alternative to utilizing the patient's blood as a thermal sink, a thermal fluid (hot or cold) may be injected into the vessel, e.g., upstream of, at, or through the energy delivery element, to remove excess thermal energy and protect the non-target tissues. The thermal fluid may, for example, be injected through the device catheter or through a guide catheter. Furthermore, this method of using an injected thermal fluid to remove excess thermal energy from non-target tissues to protect the non-target tissues from thermal injury during therapeutic treatment of target tissues may be utilized in body lumens other than blood vessels.

One or more sensors, such as the thermocouple 310 of FIG. 3A, may be used to monitor the temperature(s) or other parameter(s) at one or more locations. For example, the sensor(s) can monitor a parameter at the electrodes 306, the wall of the vessel, and/or other desired location of the apparatus or the patient's anatomy. The neuromodulation or denervation may be controlled using the measured parameter(s) as feedback. This feedback may be used, for example, to maintain the parameter(s) below a threshold that may cause injury to the non-target tissues or another desired threshold. Conversely, the feedback may be used to maintain the parameter(s) above a desired threshold, such as a threshold that may induce the desired neuromodulation or denervation. Furthermore, the feedback may be used to keep the parameter(s) within a range that will induce the desired neuromodulation or denervation without injuring or other producing undesirable results in the non-target tissues. Different parameters (or the same parameter at different locations) optionally may be used as control feedback for ensuring the desired effects while mitigating the undesired effects. With blood flowing through the vessel, more thermal energy may be carried away, which may allow for longer or higher energy treatments than when blood flow is blocked in the vessel.

As discussed, when utilizing intravascular apparatus to achieve neuromodulation or denervation, in addition, or as an alternative, to central positioning of the electrode(s) within a blood vessel, the electrode(s) optionally may be wall-contact electrodes configured to contact an internal wall of the blood vessel. Such wall-contacting electrode(s) may facilitate more efficient transfer of energy across the vessel wall to target neural fibers or tissue compared to centrally-positioned electrode(s). In some embodiments, the wall-contacting electrode(s) may be delivered to the vessel treatment site in a reduced profile configuration, then expanded in vivo to a deployed configuration wherein the electrode(s) contact the vessel wall. The expansion of the electrode(s) can be at least partially reversible to facilitate retrieval of the electrode(s) from the patient's vessel.

FIGS. 4A and 4B depict an illustrative embodiment of an intravascular apparatus having electrodes configured to contact the interior wall of a vessel. The apparatus of FIGS. 4A and 4B is an alternative embodiment of the apparatus 300 of FIGS. 3A and 3B wherein the proximal electrode 306 a of FIGS. 3A and 3B has been replaced with wall-contact electrode 306 a′. The wall-contact electrode 306 a′ comprises a proximal attachment 312 a that connects the electrode to the shaft of the catheter 302 and is electrically coupled to the generator. One or more extensions 314 a extend from proximal attachment 312 a and at least partially extend over a surface of the positioning element 304. The extensions 314 a may be selectively insulated such that only an assigned portion of the extensions, e.g., the distal tips of the extensions, are electrically active. One or more thermocouples 310 optionally may be provided in proximity to the electrically active portions of the electrodes for monitoring the temperature of the active portions or of tissue in contact with the active portions. The wall-contact electrode 306 a′ may be fabricated from a slotted tube, such as a stainless steel or shape-memory (e.g., NiTi) slotted tube. Furthermore, all or a portion of the electrode may be gold-plated to improve radiopacity and/or conductivity.

As seen in FIG. 4A, the catheter 302 may be delivered over a guidewire G to a treatment site within the patient's vessel with the wall-contact electrode 306 a′ positioned in a reduced profile configuration. The catheter 302 optionally may be delivered through a guide catheter or other sheath 303 to facilitate such reduced profile delivery of the wall-contacting electrode. When positioned as desired at a treatment site, the wall-contact electrode 306 a may be expanded into contact with the vessel wall by expanding the positioning element 304 (shown in FIG. 4B). A monopolar or bipolar electric field then may be delivered across the vessel wall, e.g., a bipolar electric field between the electrodes 306 a′ and 306 b, to induce the neuromodulation or denervation, as discussed previously. The optional positioning element 304 may alter impedance within the blood vessel and more efficiently route the electrical energy across the vessel wall to the target neural fibers or tissue.

After delivery of the electric field, the wall-contact electrode 306 a′ may be returned to a reduced profile to facilitate removal of the apparatus 300 from the patient. For example, the positioning element 304 may be collapsed (e.g., deflated), and the wall-contact electrode 306 a′ may be re-collapsed by withdrawing the catheter 302 within the guide catheter 303. Alternatively, the electrode may be fabricated from a shape-memory material biased to the collapsed configuration, such that the electrode self-collapses upon collapse of the positioning element.

The wall-contact electrode 306 a′ or the electrode 306 b optionally may be utilized in a monopolar fashion in combination with an external electrode or other remote electrode (not shown) to achieve the desired neuromodulation or denervation. When either the wall-contact electrode 306 a′ or the electrode 306 b is utilized in a monopolar fashion, the other electrode optionally may be eliminated. Alternatively, the other electrode may not be electrically activated during treatment. As another alternative, both electrodes may be activated with the same polarity and used in combination with a remote electrode to achieve a monopolar neuromodulation or denervation.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict another embodiment of the apparatus and methods of FIGS. 3A and 3B comprising a wall-contact electrode. As an alternative to the proximal attachment 312 a of the wall-contact electrode 306 a′ of FIGS. 4A and 4B, the electrode 306 a″ of FIGS. 5A and 5B comprises distal attachment 316 a for coupling the electrode to the shaft of catheter 302 on the distal side of the positioning element 304. Distal attachment of the electrode allows the electrode to extend over the entirety of the positioning element 304 and may facilitate re-collapse of the electrode 306 a″ after the neuromodulation or denervation. Re-collapse may be achieved, for example, by proximally retracting the extensions 312 a relative to the catheter 302 during or after re-collapse of the positioning element 304. FIG. 5A shows the electrode 306 a″ in the reduced profile configuration, while FIG. 5B shows the electrode in the expanded, wall-contacting configuration.

FIGS. 6A and 6B show additional alternative embodiments of the methods and apparatus of FIGS. 3A and 3B. In FIGS. 6A and 6B, the apparatus 300 comprises both the proximal wall-contact electrode 306 a′ of FIGS. 4A and 4B, as well as a wall-contact distal electrode 306 b′. The embodiment of FIG. 6A comprises proximal and distal positioning elements 304 a and 304 b, respectively, for expanding the proximal and distal wall-contact electrodes 306 a′ and 306 b′, respectively, into contact with the vessel wall. The embodiment of FIG. 6B comprises only a single positioning element 304, but the distal wall-contact electrode 306 b′ is proximal facing and positioned over the distal portion of the positioning element 304 to facilitate expansion of the distal electrode 306 b′. In the embodiment of FIG. 6B, the extensions of the proximal and distal wall-contact electrodes optionally may be connected along non-conductive connectors 318 to facilitate collapse and retrieval of the electrodes post-treatment.

A bipolar electric field may be delivered between the proximal and distal wall-contact electrodes, or a monopolar electric field may be delivered between the proximal and/or distal electrode(s) and a remote electrode. Having both the proximal and distal wall-contact electrodes in contact with the wall of the vessel may facilitate more efficient energy transfer across the wall during delivery of an electric field, as compared to having one or both of the proximal and distal electrodes centered within the vessel.

In addition to intravascular systems for neuromodulation or denervation, intra-to-extravascular systems may be provided. The intra-to-extravascular systems may, for example, have electrode(s) or other energy delivery element(s) that are delivered to an intravascular position, and then at least partially passed through/across the vessel wall to an extravascular position prior to delivery of energy. Intra-to-extravascular positioning of the element(s) may place the element(s) in closer proximity to target neural fibers or tissue for delivery of energy, as compared to fully intravascular positioning of the element(s).

With reference to FIG. 7, one embodiment of an intra-to-extravascular (“ITEV”) system 320 comprises a catheter 322 having (a) a plurality of proximal electrode lumens terminating at proximal side ports 324, (b) a plurality of distal electrode lumens terminating at distal side ports 326, and (c) a guidewire lumen 323. The catheter 322 preferably comprises an equal number of proximal and distal electrode lumens and side ports. The system 320 also includes proximal needle electrodes 328 that may be advanced through the proximal electrode lumens and the proximal side ports 324, as well as distal needle electrodes 329 that may be advanced through the distal electrode lumens and the distal side ports 326.

The catheter 322 comprises an optional expandable positioning element 330, which may comprise an inflatable balloon or an expandable basket or cage. In use, the positioning element 330 may be expanded prior to deployment of the needle electrodes 328 and/or 329 in order to position or center the catheter 322 within the patient's vessel (e.g., within artery A). Centering the catheter 322 is expected to facilitate delivery of all needle electrodes to desired depths within/external to the patient's vessel (e.g., to deliver all of the needle electrodes approximately to the same depth). In FIG. 7, the illustrated positioning element 330 is positioned between the proximal side ports 324 and the distal side ports 326, i.e., between the delivery positions of the proximal and distal electrodes. However, it should be understood that the positioning element 330 additionally or alternatively may be positioned at a different location or at multiple locations along the length of the catheter 322 (e.g., at a location proximal of the side ports 324 and/or at a location distal of the side ports 326).

As illustrated in FIG. 7, the catheter 322 may be advanced to a treatment site within the patient's vasculature (e.g., to a treatment site within the patient's artery A) over a guidewire (not shown) via the lumen 323. During intravascular delivery, the electrodes 328 and 329 may be positioned such that their non-insulated and sharpened distal regions are positioned within the proximal and distal lumens, respectively. Once positioned at a treatment site, a medical practitioner may advance the electrodes via their proximal regions that are located external to the patient. Such advancement causes the distal regions of the electrodes 328 and 329 to exit side ports 324 and 326, respectively, and pierce the wall of the patient's vasculature such that the electrodes are positioned extravascularly via an ITEV approach.

The proximal electrodes 328 can be connected to field generator 50 as active electrodes, and the distal electrodes 329 can serve as return electrodes. In this manner, the proximal and distal electrodes form bipolar electrode pairs that align an electric field with a longitudinal axis or direction of the patient's vasculature. As will be apparent, the distal electrodes 329 alternatively may comprise the active electrodes and the proximal electrodes 328 may comprise the return electrodes. Furthermore, the proximal and/or the distal electrodes may comprise both active and return electrodes. Furtherstill, the proximal and/or the distal electrodes may be utilized in combination with an external ground for delivery of a monopolar thermal electric field. Any combination of active and distal electrodes may be utilized, as desired.

When the electrodes 328 and 329 are connected to generator 50 and positioned extravascularly, and with the positioning element 330 optionally expanded, delivery of an electric field may proceed to achieve desired neuromodulation or denervation. The electric field, for example, may induce irreversible electroporation and/or thermal damage. After achievement of the neuromodulation or denervation, the electrodes may be retracted within the proximal and distal lumens, and the positioning element 330 may be collapsed for retrieval. ITEV system 320 then may be removed from the patient to complete the procedure. Additionally or alternatively, the system may be repositioned to provide therapy at another treatment site.

As discussed previously, protective elements, such as convective thermal elements, may be utilized to protect non-target tissues like smooth muscle cells from damage during neuromodulation or denervation. Non-target tissues additionally or alternatively may be protected by focusing energy on the target neural fibers or tissue, such that an intensity of the energy is insufficient to induce damage in the non-target tissues distant from the target neural fibers or tissue.

Although FIGS. 2-7 illustratively show bipolar apparatus, it should be understood that monopolar apparatus alternatively may be utilized. For example, an active monopolar electrode may be positioned intravascularly or intra-to-extravascularly in proximity to target neural matter. A remote electrode may be attached to the exterior of the patient. Finally, an electric field may be delivered between the in vivo monopolar electrode and an ex vivo remote electrode to effectuate desired neuromodulation or denervation. When utilizing monopolar apparatus, only a single electrode optionally may be provided.

The embodiments of FIGS. 2-7 illustratively describe methods and apparatus for neuromodulation or denervation via delivery of electric fields to the target neural fibers or tissue. However, it should be understood that alternative methods and apparatus for neuromodulation may be provided. For example, thermally-induced neuromodulation or denervation optionally may be achieved via application of thermal energy to the target neural fibers or other neural tissue. Thermal energy may be generated and/or transferred in a variety of ways, such as via conduction, convection or radiation; via delivery of a heated or chilled fluid; via a thermoelectric or Peltier element; via resistive heating induced by an electric field, via magnetic or electromagnetic techniques, etc. Thermally-induced neuromodulation or denervation additionally or alternatively may be achieved via application of high-intensity focused ultrasound to the target neural matter. Additional and alternative methods and apparatus for neuromodulation or denervation may be used in accordance with the present invention.

Although the wall-contacting and intra-to-extravascular electrodes of FIGS. 4-7 illustratively comprise multiple extensions, electrodes or needles at each laterally-positioned treatment location, it should be understood that a single extension/electrode/needle optionally may be provided at each laterally-positioned treatment location. Alternatively, multiple extensions or electrodes may be provided at the treatment location(s), but may be spaced unevenly about the circumference of the vessel. In this manner, an eccentric treatment, e.g., a non-circumferential and/or focal treatment, may be applied to the vessel. An eccentric or unitary treatment may reduce a risk of acute or late stenosis formation within the vessel, as compared to a full circumferential treatment.

Although the wall-contacting and intra-to-extravascular electrodes of FIGS. 4-7 illustratively are expanded via positioning elements, it should be understood that the electrodes in accordance with the present invention additionally or alternatively may be configured to self-expand into contact with the vessel wall. For example, the electrodes may self-expand after removal of a sheath or guide catheter constraining the electrodes in a reduced delivery configuration. The electrodes may, for example, be fabricated from (or coupled to) shape-memory elements that are configured to self-expand. Self-expanding embodiments optionally may be collapsed for retrieval from the patient by re-positioning of a constraining sheath or catheter over the self-expanding electrodes.

With reference now to FIG. 8, an alternative embodiment of the apparatus and methods of FIG. 7 is described, which may be used for thermally-induced neuromodulation via direct application of thermal energy. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the electrodes 328 and 329 of FIG. 7 have been replaced with infusion needles 328′ and 329′, respectively. A fluid F, such as a thermal fluid, may be delivered through the needles to the target neural matter. The thermal fluid, e.g., steam, may be heated in order to raise the temperature of the target neural matter above a desired threshold, for example, above a body temperature of about 37° C. or above a temperature of about 45° C. Alternatively, the thermal fluid may be chilled to reduce the temperature of the target neural matter below a desired threshold, for example, below the body temperature of about 37° C., below about 20° C., or below a freezing temperature of about 0° C. As will be apparent, in addition to intra-to-extravascular delivery of a thermal fluid, the thermal fluid may be delivered intravascularly (e.g., may inflate and/or be circulated through a balloon member), extravascularly (e.g., may be circulated through a vascular cuff) or a combination thereof.

In addition or as alternative to injection of a thermal fluid to the target neural matter through the infusion needles 328′ and 329′, an alternative fluid F, such as a neuromodulatory agent (e.g., a drug or medicament), may be injected, for example, to modulate, necrose or otherwise block or reduce transmission along the target neural matter. Examples of neuromodulatory agents include, but are not limited to, phenol; neurotoxins, such as botulinum toxin; beta blockers; vasodilators; and/or other standard heart failure drugs, renal drugs, or cardio-renal drugs. Additional neuromodulatory agents, per se known, will be apparent to those of skill in the art.

As an alternative to laterally spaced injection of a fluid, such as a thermal fluid or neuromodulatory agent, the fluid F optionally may be injected a single longitudinal location, i.e., along a single cross-section of the vessel. For example, the fluid may be injected only through the infusion needles 328′ or only through the infusion needles 329′. When utilizing such a method of treatment, the needles 328′ or the needles 329′ may be eliminated.

Optionally, only a single infusion needle 328′ and/or a single infusion needle 329′ may be provided. Alternatively, an eccentric spacing of the infusion needles 328′ and/or the infusion needles 329′ may be provided. Treatment utilizing such embodiments may reduce a risk of acute or late stenosis formation, as compared to full circumferential treatment.

Intravascularly-induced neuromodulation alternatively may be achieved via high-intensity focused ultrasound, either pulsed or continuous. High intensity focused ultrasound may induce thermal injury and/or reversible or irreversible electroporation in the target neural matter. Furthermore, the ultrasound may be delivered over a full 360° (e.g. when delivered intravascularly) or over a radial segment of less than 360° (e.g., when delivered intravascularly, extravascularly, intra-to-extravascularly, or a combination thereof). In FIGS. 9A and 9B, the apparatus 360 comprises a catheter 362 having ultrasound transducers 364 positioned along the shaft of the catheter within an inflatable balloon 366. The ultrasound transducers are coupled to an ultrasound signal generator via conductors 365. The balloon comprises an acoustically reflective portion 368 of a surface of the balloon for reflecting an ultrasound wave, as well as an acoustically transmissive portion 369 of the surface for passage of the wave through the balloon. In this manner, the wave may be focused as shown at a focal point or radius P positioned a desired focal distance from the catheter shaft. In an alternative embodiment, the transducers may be attached directly to the balloon.

The focal distance may be specified or dynamically variable such that, when positioned within a blood vessel, the ultrasonic wave is focused at a desired depth on target neural matter outside of the vessel. For example, a family of catheter sizes may be provided to allow for a range of specified focal distances. A dynamically variable focal distance may be achieved, for example, via calibrated expansion of the balloon.

Focusing the ultrasound wave may protect the non-target tissues and selectively affect the target neural matter to achieve neuromodulation via heating. FIG. 9A shows the apparatus 360 in a reduced delivery and retrieval configuration, while FIG. 9B shows the apparatus in an expanded deployed configuration. FIG. 10 shows an alternative embodiment of the apparatus 360 wherein the ultrasound transducers 364′ are concave, such that the ultrasound signal is self-focusing without need of the reflective portion of the balloon 366 (e.g., the balloon may be acoustically transmissive at all points).

The apparatus described above with respect to FIGS. 3-10 optionally may be used to quantify the efficacy, extent or cell selectivity of neuromodulation in order to monitor and/or control the neuromodulation. As discussed previously, the apparatus may further comprise one or more sensors, such as thermocouples or imaging transducers, for measuring and monitoring one or more parameters of the apparatus, of the target neural matter, and/or of the non-target tissues. For example, a temperature rise or drop above or below certain thresholds may thermally ablate, non-ablatively injure, freeze or otherwise damage the target neural matter, thereby modulating the target neural fibers or neural tissue.

It is expected that intravascularly-induced neuromodulation may alleviate clinical symptoms of several neurological disorders or other medical conditions for an extended period of time, potentially up to six months or more. This time period may be sufficient to allow the body to heal, thereby alleviating a need for subsequent re-treatment. Alternatively, as symptoms re-occur, or at regularly scheduled intervals, the patient may receive repeat therapy.

Although preferred illustrative variations of the present invention are described above, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the invention. It is intended in the appended claims to cover all such changes and modifications that fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention. 

1. A method for denervation, the method comprising: positioning a neural denervation element within a blood vessel of a patient; and at least partially denervating tissue that is innervated by neural matter located within or in proximity to the blood vessel via the neural denervation element.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein at least partially denervating the tissue at least partially denervates an effector organ that is innervated by the neural fibers or neural tissue.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein at least partially denervating further comprises treating a medical condition chosen from the group consisting of neurological disorders, pain, peripheral arterial occlusive disease, heart arrhythmia, heart failure, hypertension, renal disease, renal failure, contrast nephropathy, myocardial infarction, headache, migraine, cerebral palsy, spasticity, rigor and combinations thereof.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein at least partially denervating further comprises modulating neural matter chosen from the group consisting of efferent neural fibers, afferent neural fibers, sympathetic neural fibers, parasympathetic neural fibers, motor neural fibers, sensory neural fibers, brain tissue and combinations thereof.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises percutaneously positioning at least one electrode within the blood vessel, and wherein at least partially denervating via the neural denervation element further comprises at least partially denervating with an electrical field delivered to neural fibers or neural tissue via the at least one electrode.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein at least partially denervating with the electrical field delivered to the neural fibers or neural tissue via the at least one electrode further comprises delivering a monopolar electrical field between the at least one electrode and an external ground pad coupled to the patient.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein percutaneously positioning an electrode within the blood vessel further comprises percutaneously positioning a bipolar electrode pair within the blood vessel, and wherein at least partially denervating with the electrical field delivered to the neural matter via the electrode further comprises delivering a bipolar electrical field across the bipolar electrode pair.
 8. The method of claim 5 further comprising altering impedance within the blood vessel during delivery of the electrical field.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein altering impedance within the blood vessel during delivery of the electrical field further comprises altering blood flow within the blood vessel during delivery of the electrical field.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein altering blood flow within the blood vessel during delivery of the electrical field further comprises inflating a balloon within the blood vessel.
 11. The method of claim 5, wherein at least partially denervating with the electrical field further comprises at least partially denervating with a pulsed electrical field.
 12. The method of claim 5, wherein at least partially denervating with the electrical field further comprises at least partially denervating with a substantially athermal electrical field.
 13. The method of claim 5, wherein at least partially denervating with the electrical field further comprises at least partially denervating with a thermal electrical field.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises percutaneously positioning a high intensity focused ultrasound transducer within the blood vessel, and wherein at least partially denervating via the neural denervation element further comprises at least partially denervating with an ultrasound field delivered to neural matter via the high intensity focused ultrasound transducer.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises percutaneously positioning a thermal element within the blood vessel, and wherein at least partially denervating via the neural denervation element further comprises at least partially denervating with thermal energy delivered to neural matter via the thermal element.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein positioning the thermal element within the blood vessel further comprises percutaneously positioning a thermoelectric element within the blood vessel.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein at least partially denervating with the thermal energy delivered to the neural matter via the thermal element further comprises at least partially denervating by heating the neural matter via the thermal element.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein at least partially denervating with the thermal energy delivered to the neural matter via the thermal element further comprises at least partially denervating by cooling the neural matter via the thermal element.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises substantially centering the neural denervation element within the blood vessel.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises contacting a wall of the blood vessel with the neural denervation element.
 21. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises: coupling the neural denervation element to a balloon catheter; and inflating a balloon of the balloon catheter within the blood vessel to percutaneously position the neural denervation element.
 22. The method of claim 1, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel further comprises passing the neural denervation element across a wall of the blood vessel.
 23. The method of claim 2, wherein positioning the neural denervation element within the blood vessel of the patient further comprises percutaneously positioning the neural denervation element within a renal vasculature of the patient, and wherein at least partially denervating the effector organ further comprises at least partially denervating a kidney of the patient.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein at least partially denervating the kidney of the patient further comprises reducing renal sympathetic neural activity in the patient.
 25. Apparatus for neuromodulation, the apparatus comprising: a device configured for delivery within a blood vessel to a vicinity of a target neural matter; and a neuromodulation element at least proximate to the device, the neuromodulation element being configured to expand from a first dimension to a second dimension, wherein the neuromodulation element is configured to contact or pass through a wall of the blood vessel upon expansion of the neuromodulation element to the second dimension within the blood vessel, and wherein the neuromodulation element is configured to modulate a function of the target neural matter upon expansion of the neuromodulation element to the second dimension within the blood vessel.
 26. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element is configured to self-expand from the first dimension to the second dimension.
 27. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the device further comprises an expandable member that is at least proximate to the neuromodulation element, the expandable member being configured to expand the neuromodulation element from the first dimension to the second dimension.
 28. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises an electrical contact configured to directly apply the energy relative to the neural fiber or neural tissue.
 29. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises an electrical contact configured to indirectly deliver the energy relative to the neural fiber or neural tissue.
 30. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises at least one electrode configured to deliver an electric field relative to the neural fiber or neural tissue.
 31. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the apparatus further comprises at least one sensor.
 32. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein the sensor is configured to monitor a parameter of the neural fiber or neural tissue.
 33. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein the sensor is configured to monitor a parameter of non-target tissue.
 34. The apparatus of claim 31, wherein the sensor is configured to monitor a parameter of the apparatus.
 35. The apparatus of claim 31 further comprising a feedback control in communication with the sensor.
 36. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the apparatus further comprises a protective element configured to reduce a degree of damage induced in non-target tissue by the neuromodulation element.
 37. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises at least one thermal element configured to deliver thermal energy relative to the neural fiber or neural tissue.
 38. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises a high intensity focused ultrasound element.
 39. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein the neuromodulation element further comprises a fluid.
 40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein the fluid comprises a thermal fluid or a neuromodulatory agent. 